What are Cannabinoids: Types, Effects, Uses, Withdrawal

Cannabinoids are a group of chemical compounds that interact with the body’s endocannabinoid system, primarily affecting the brain and nervous system. These compounds are naturally occurring, like those found in the cannabis plant, or synthetically produced. The most well-known cannabinoids are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), but there are many others with various effects on the body. Cannabinoids are classified into three main types: plant-derived (found in cannabis), synthetic, and endogenous (produced naturally by the body).

Cannabinoid use has grown significantly in the United States in recent years, with an estimated 48.2 million people aged 12 and older having used cannabis in the past year, according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse. A significant portion of this use is driven by recreational consumption, with cannabis being the most commonly used illicit drug in the country. However, the growing availability of both medical and recreational cannabis has also raised concerns about the rise in problematic use, particularly among young adults, which highlights the need for careful monitoring of its impact on public health.

Cannabinoids are consumed in various ways, each affecting the body differently. The most common methods include smoking or vaping cannabis, consuming cannabis-infused edibles, and using oils or tinctures, according to Verywell Health in “How Is Marijuana Used?” These consumption methods allow cannabinoids to be absorbed into the bloodstream, where they quickly reach the brain and produce their effects. More recently, cannabinoids have also been incorporated into wellness products like topical creams and capsules. The flexibility in consumption means that individuals tailor their cannabinoid use to their preferences, further increasing its popularity.

Table Of Contents:

• What are Cannabinoids?
• What Drugs Are Considered Cannabinoids?
• How are Cannabinoids Consumed?
• What Conditions are Cannabinoids Used for?
• What are the Side Effects of Cannabinoids?
• What are the Overdose Effects of Cannabinoids?
• How Do Cannabinoids Affect the Brain and Body?

The effects of cannabinoids include altered time perception, impaired thinking, memory, and body movement, according to the Alcohol and Drug Foundation in “Cannabinoids.” It also makes people feel more irritable or restless. The effects vary depending on the specific compound used, the dose, and the individual’s response. While THC is primarily known for its psychoactive effects, such as euphoria and altered perception, CBD is associated with a calming, non-intoxicating effect. Both compounds interact with the body’s endocannabinoid system, influencing neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin, which affect mood, pain perception, and appetite. These effects contribute to the therapeutic uses of cannabinoids but also raise concerns regarding potential misuse.

Regular use of cannabinoids leads to dependence, particularly with THC-rich products. When used frequently, the brain and body become reliant on the compound to maintain balance, leading to withdrawal symptoms when use is reduced or stopped. This process of dependence develops gradually into addiction, especially in individuals who use cannabis for extended periods or in high doses. Additionally, cannabinoids impact mental health, with some individuals developing tolerance, meaning they need to consume more to achieve the desired effects. A study by the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA) in “Marijuana Facts for Teens” estimated that about 9% of cannabis users develop an addiction, a rate that increases to 17% for those who begin use in adolescence and up to 25-50% for daily users.

Some of the most common cannabinoid withdrawal symptoms include irritability, sleep disturbances, and decreased appetite. Other symptoms, such as anxiety and restlessness, also occur but generally subside within a few weeks after cessation. According to a study in JAMA Psychiatry, titled “Prevalence of Cannabis Withdrawal Symptoms Among People With Regular or Dependent Use of Cannabinoids, A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis,” approximately 47% of regular cannabis users report withdrawal symptoms, which peak within the first 7 days and gradually subside over two to three weeks.

What are Cannabinoids?

The term cannabinoid is any chemical substance, regardless of its structure or origin, that interacts with the cannabinoid receptors in the body and brain, producing effects similar to those caused by the Cannabis sativa plant. The two most prominent cannabinoids are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Among these, THC is the most widely recognized, as it is the primary chemical responsible for the psychoactive effects of cannabis. Their effects are mediated primarily through cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, located in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Cannabinoids are found in Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica plants or synthesized for medical and research purposes. There are three main types of cannabinoids that people use: recreational, medicinal, and synthetic. Chemically, cannabinoids are lipophilic molecules with a terpenophenolic structure that allows them to cross the blood-brain barrier effectively, enabling their profound impact on brain function and body processes. Research by Fundacion Canna, “What are cannabinoids? Where can cannabinoids be found?” has identified that the cannabis plant produces between 80 and 100 cannabinoids, along with approximately 300 non-cannabinoid chemicals.

Cannabinoids affect key neurotransmitters, including serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, which explains their complex and varied effects. For serotonin, cannabinoids act as modulators, enhancing or inhibiting its activity, leading to outcomes like improved mood, anxiety reduction, or even hallucinogenic effects at higher doses. THC, the primary psychoactive component, is known to stimulate dopamine release, resulting in euphoria and reward sensations, but prolonged use disrupts dopamine regulation, contributing to dependency or emotional flatness. Additionally, cannabinoids influence norepinephrine pathways, which result in stimulant-like effects such as heightened alertness or, conversely, anxiety in sensitive users.

These interactions grant cannabinoids both stimulant and hallucinogenic properties, making them versatile but unpredictable substances. While cannabinoids like CBD are primarily non-psychoactive and valued for therapeutic benefits, THC and synthetic cannabinoids induce a wide range of effects, from relaxation and pain relief to altered sensory perceptions and cognitive impairments. These diverse characteristics underline the dual nature of cannabinoids as both promising therapeutic agents and substances with potential for misuse, depending on their context and application.

How are Cannabinoids Used?

Cannabinoids are used to treat a variety of medical conditions, as well as for recreational purposes. Drugs containing cannabinoids are found to be helpful in treating certain rare forms of epilepsy, nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy, and loss of appetite and weight loss associated with HIV/AIDS, according to the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health in “Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know.”

Medically, cannabinoids such as CBD are used to manage chronic pain, reduce inflammation, alleviate anxiety, and even treat conditions like multiple sclerosis. THC, the psychoactive component of cannabis, has been found useful in reducing nausea and stimulating appetite, particularly for patients undergoing chemotherapy or dealing with HIV/AIDS.

Recreationally, cannabinoids are commonly consumed in the form of marijuana, which is smoked, vaped, or consumed in edibles, primarily for its mood-altering effects. These include feelings of relaxation, euphoria, and altered sensory perception, according to a study by Ameri A. et al. 1999, titled “The effects of cannabinoids on the brain.” While medical cannabis is legally prescribed in many areas, recreational use is regulated or decriminalized in certain regions. Both uses have sparked ongoing research into their therapeutic potential and long-term effects.

What are the Classes of Cannabinoids?

The classes of cannabinoids include various chemical compounds found in cannabis, each with distinct properties and effects. These cannabinoids are categorized based on their chemical structure and physiological effects on the body. The most commonly studied cannabinoids include Cannabigerol (CBG), Cannabichromene (CBC), Cannabidiol (CBD), Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Cannabinol (CBN), Cannabinodiol (CBDL), and other lesser-known cannabinoids such as Cannabicyclol (CBL), Cannabielsoin (CBE), and Cannabitriol (CBT).

The classes of cannabinoids are as follows:

• Cannabigerol (CBG): CBG is considered the “mother” of all cannabinoids because other cannabinoids are derived from it. It is non-psychoactive and has been shown to have potential therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antibacterial effects, according to a study by Calapai F et al. 2022, titled “Pharmacological Aspects and Biological Effects of Cannabigerol and Its Synthetic Derivatives.” CBG is usually short-acting and is primarily used in the treatment of conditions like glaucoma and irritable bowel syndrome.
• Cannabichromene (CBC): Cannabichromene (CBC) is one of the most abundant phytocannabinoids in Cannabis spp. It is another non-psychoactive cannabinoid thought to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antidepressant effects, according to a study by Udoh M, Santiago M, et al. 2019, titled “Cannabichromene is a cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonist.” CBC also helps stimulate the growth of brain cells, offering potential neurogenic effects. CBC is considered to have a longer-lasting impact than CBG.
• Cannabidiol (CBD): CBD is one of the most well-known cannabinoids and is widely used for its therapeutic benefits. It is non-psychoactive and has been shown to help with anxiety, chronic pain, epilepsy, and sleep disorders. According to a study by Meissner H, Cascella M. et al. 2024, “Cannabidiol (CBD),” CBD is used in both short- and long-acting forms, with various applications in medicinal and wellness products.
• Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (also known as THC) is the primary psychoactive cannabinoid in cannabis, responsible for the “high” sensation associated with recreational marijuana use. It has both short- and long-term effects, including pain relief, appetite stimulation, and mood elevation, according to a study by Ng T and Keshock MC. et al. 2023, titled “Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).” It is known to impair cognitive function in the short term but has potential therapeutic applications for nausea, muscle spasticity, and other conditions.
• Cannabinol (CBN): CBN is a mildly psychoactive cannabinoid that results from the degradation of THC. It is thought to have sedative effects and help with sleep disorders, as studied by Maioli et al. 2022, in “Cannabinol: History, Syntheses, and Biological Profile of the Greatest “Minor” Cannabinoid.” CBN is considered long-acting and is commonly found in older cannabis products.
• Cannabinodiol (CBDL): CBDL is a less common cannabinoid and is believed to have similar effects to CBD, though research is limited. It possesses mild anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties, and like CBD, it is non-psychoactive.
• Other cannabinoids, including cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabielsoin (CBE), and cannabidiol (CBT), They are lesser-known cannabinoids being studied for their potential effects on the body. CBL and CBE are non-psychoactive, while CBT has psychoactive effects, though research is still in its early stages. They contribute to the entourage effect, enhancing or modifying the effects of other cannabinoids when consumed together.

What Drugs Are Considered Cannabinoids?

Drugs that are considered cannabinoids include both natural and synthetic substances that mimic the effects of cannabis on the body. These drugs act on cannabinoid receptors in the brain and other parts of the body, producing a range of impacts from mild relaxation to altered perception. They are used for various purposes, including recreational use, pain management, and treatment of medical conditions.

The following drugs are considered cannabinoids:

• Marijuana (Cannabis): Marijuana is the most commonly known form of cannabis and contains high levels of the psychoactive cannabinoid THC. It is used recreationally for its mood-altering effects and medicinally for conditions like chronic pain, nausea, and glaucoma. According to a report by the World Health Organization (WHO), about 147 million people, 2.5% of the world population, consume cannabis (annual prevalence) compared with 0.2% consuming cocaine and 0.2% consuming opiates.
• Hashish: Hashish is a concentrated form of cannabis made by collecting and compressing the resin of the cannabis plant. It contains higher levels of THC compared to marijuana and is smoked or ingested for its potent psychoactive effects. A study by Palamar JJ, Lee L, Weitzman M., et al. 2015, titled “Prevalence and correlates of hashish use in a national sample of high school seniors in the United States” of high school seniors found that the prevalence of recent hashish use was 6.5%, with 18.3% of recent marijuana users also using hashish.
• Hash Oil: Hash oil is another concentrated form of cannabis that is produced by extracting the active cannabinoids, primarily THC and CBD, from the plant using solvents. It is commonly used in dabbing, vaping, and other concentrated forms of cannabis consumption due to its high potency. A study by Meier MH. et al. 2017, titled “Associations between butane hash oil use and cannabis-related problems,” found that 44% of 2016 cannabis users among college students reported using butane hash oil (BHO) within the same period.
• K2/Spice (Synthetic Cannabinoids): Synthetic cannabinoids, often sold as “K2” or “Spice,” are artificial chemicals designed to mimic the effects of THC. They are sprayed on plant material and smoked but are much more dangerous due to their unpredictable effects and potency. According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA) 2022 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) report, 7,216,000 individuals aged 12 and older used synthetic marijuana (K2).
• Dronabinol (Marinol): Dronabinol is a synthetic form of THC, approved for use in treating nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy and for appetite stimulation in patients with AIDS, according to a study by Dean L et al. 2020 titled “Dronabinol Therapy and CYP2C9 Genotype.” It is available in capsule form and is used medically for specific conditions.
• Nabilone (Cesamet): Nabilone is another synthetic cannabinoid used to treat nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy. It is chemically similar to THC and works in a similar manner but with fewer psychoactive effects. Cesamet has the potential to affect the CNS, which manifests itself in dizziness, drowsiness, euphoria “high,” ataxia, anxiety, disorientation, depression, hallucinations, and psychosis, according to the FDA. It also causes tachycardia and orthostatic hypotension.
• Epidiolex: Epidiolex is a prescription medication made from CBD (cannabidiol) and is used to treat rare forms of epilepsy, such as Dravet syndrome and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, according to a study by Wechsler RT et al. 2024, titled “Consensus panel recommendations for the optimization of EPIDIOLEX® treatment for seizures associated with Lennox–Gastaut syndrome, Dravet syndrome, and tuberous sclerosis complex.” It is a non-psychoactive cannabinoid with therapeutic effects on seizure control.
• Sativex: Sativex is a prescription medication that contains both THC and CBD in a balanced ratio. It is used to treat muscle spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis and has been shown to improve symptoms such as pain and sleep disturbances. The number of prescriptions dispensed annually showed a steady increase, rising from 4.42 per 100,000 people in 2013 to 5.15 in 2022, according to a study by Javid FA et al. 2024, titled “Trends in prescription and cost of Sativex, a cannabinoid-based medicine, in treating patients with multiple sclerosis in England.”

How are Cannabinoids Consumed?

Cannabinoids are consumed through various methods that cater to individual preferences and desired effects. Smoking or vaping cannabis remains one of the most common ways to ingest cannabinoids, delivering rapid effects as they are absorbed through the lungs into the bloodstream. Edibles, such as gummies, brownies, or infused beverages, provide an alternative method, offering delayed but long-lasting effects as cannabinoids are metabolized through the digestive system.

Cannabinoids are also consumed in the form of oils, tinctures, or capsules, which are taken sublingually or swallowed for precise dosing and discreet use. Topical applications, including creams and balms, allow cannabinoids to be absorbed through the skin for localized relief, particularly for pain and inflammation. Additionally, dabbing high-potency cannabis concentrates, such as wax or butane hash oil, has become popular for those seeking stronger effects. Each method of consumption varies in onset time, duration, and intensity, offering diverse options for both medicinal and recreational users.

What Conditions are Cannabinoids Used for?

Cannabinoids are used to treat chronic pain, nausea, and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis spasticity, and anxiety disorders. Their therapeutic benefits stem from their interaction with the endocannabinoid system, which regulates pain, inflammation, and neurological functions. Cannabinoids have gained recognition in modern medicine for their potential to alleviate symptoms and improve the quality of life for patients with various conditions.

Cannabinoids are used for the following conditions:

• Chronic pain: Cannabinoids are effective in managing chronic pain by interacting with CB1 and CB2 receptors in the nervous system, reducing pain perception and inflammation. According to Cameron, E.C., Hemingway, S.L. et al. (2020), the study titled “Cannabinoids for fibromyalgia pain: a critical review of recent studies (2015–2019)” followed PRISMA guidelines to review the effectiveness of cannabinoids for fibromyalgia pain systematically. A search of PubMed and Medline databases identified five studies involving 827 participants and six different treatments. While the review superficially supports cannabinoids as a safe and potentially effective treatment for fibromyalgia pain, significant methodological limitations, such as issues with generalizability and validity, prevent definitive conclusions.
• Nausea and vomiting from chemotherapy: Cannabinoids like dronabinol (synthetic THC) mitigate nausea and vomiting by acting on the brain’s vomiting center, offering relief to cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. According to Walsh D, Nelson KA, and Mahmoud FA. in the study titled “Established and potential therapeutic applications of cannabinoids in oncology.,” cannabinoids, the active agents derived from cannabis (marijuana), are considered for controlling nausea and vomiting as fourth‐line agents. They have been recommended in international anti‐emetic guidelines for the prevention of chemotherapy‐induced nausea and vomiting.
• Appetite stimulation in conditions like HIV/AIDS: Cannabinoids stimulate appetite by influencing the hypothalamus, addressing weight loss and malnutrition in HIV/AIDS patients. According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), it is in the anti-emetics and anti-epileptic class of medications per the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
• Epilepsy (e.g., Dravet syndrome, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome): Cannabidiol (CBD) reduces seizure frequency and severity, particularly in drug-resistant forms of epilepsy, as evidenced by FDA approval of Epidiolex, according to a study by Ryan M. et al. 2020 titled “Cannabidiol in epilepsy: The indications and beyond.”
• Multiple sclerosis spasticity: Cannabinoids alleviate muscle stiffness and spasms, improving mobility and comfort in MS patients, according to a study by Malfitano AM, Proto MC, Bifulco M., et al. 2008, titled “Cannabinoids in the management of spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis.” Products like Sativex are widely used.
• Anxiety disorders: CBD’s anxiolytic properties help regulate serotonin levels, easing symptoms in conditions like generalized anxiety disorder and social anxiety. A review of eight randomized controlled trials conducted by Stanciu CN et al. 2021, titled “Evidence for Use of Cannabinoids in Mood Disorders, Anxiety Disorders, and PTSD: A Systematic Review,” examined the effects of defined doses of THC and CBD on anxiety, social anxiety disorder, PTSD, and depression. Results showed mixed findings: daily THC reduced anxiety in one trial, while CBD showed modest improvements in social anxiety in others.
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Cannabinoids modulate the stress response, helping to reduce hyperarousal and intrusive thoughts in PTSD patients. A review was conducted by Rehman Y et al. 2021, titled “Cannabis in the management of PTSD: a systematic review,” one RCT and 10 observational studies (n=4,672) found that cannabis use was associated with reduced PTSD symptoms and improved quality of life, though evidence was primarily from high-risk-of-bias studies.
• Glaucoma: Cannabinoids lower intraocular pressure, though their short-lasting effects mean they are adjunctive rather than primary treatments, according to a study by Tomida I et al. 2004, titled “Cannabinoids and Glaucoma.”
• Inflammatory bowel diseases (e.g., Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis): Cannabinoids reduce inflammation and pain, potentially improving symptoms and quality of life for IBD sufferers. Early surveys and small clinical studies published in a study by Hasenoehrl C, Storr M, Schicho R., et al. 2017, titled “Cannabinoids for treating inflammatory bowel diseases: where are we and where do we go?” in IBD patients reveal that cannabis, primarily through its active cannabinoids like THC and cannabidiol, is used to alleviate symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and loss of appetite.
• Neuropathic pain: By targeting nerve-related pain mechanisms, cannabinoids provide relief in conditions such as diabetic neuropathy and sciatica, according to a study by Campos RMP et al. 2021, titled “Cannabinoid Therapeutics in Chronic Neuropathic Pain: From Animal Research to Human Treatment.”
• Parkinson’s disease symptoms: Cannabinoids help with tremors, rigidity, and sleep disturbances, offering symptomatic relief for Parkinson’s patients, according to a study by Urbi B, Corbett J et al. 2022, titled “Effects of Cannabis in Parkinson’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.”
• Tourette syndrome tics: Cannabinoids reduce motor and vocal tics by modulating the central nervous system’s overactivity. According to a study by Curtis A, Clarke CE, Rickards HE. et al. 2009, titled “Cannabinoids for Tourette’s Syndrome,” only two relevant studies have been conducted at present. Both studies used tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9 THC). In both studies, Δ9THC was associated with tic reduction.
• Autism spectrum disorder symptoms: Cannabinoids improve anxiety, aggression, and hyperactivity in autism spectrum disorder, according to a study by Silva EAD Junior et al. 2022, titled “Cannabis and cannabinoid use in autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review.”
• Insomnia: Cannabinoids, particularly CBD, improve sleep onset and quality by promoting relaxation and reducing anxiety. Around 70% of young adults who casually use cannabis report that they do so to help them sleep. Among people who use cannabis for medical reasons, such as pain relief, as many as 85% say it improves their sleep, according to Sleep Foundation in “Cannabis for Sleep.”

What are the Side Effects of Cannabinoids?

The effects of cannabinoids range from physical to neurological and manifest as side effects, withdrawal symptoms, or signs of misuse. Cannabinoids interact with the endocannabinoid system, influencing neurotransmitter release and bodily functions, which leads to both short- and long-term effects.

These effects of cannabinoids are detailed below:

• Dry mouth (physical, short-term): Cannabinoids reduce saliva production by interacting with the CB1 and CB2 receptors in salivary glands, which increases your chance of tooth decay and oral infections, according to Medical Health News in “Can CBD make a person’s mouth dry?” This effect is temporary but uncomfortable.
• Drowsiness (physical/neurological, short-term): Cannabinoids, particularly THC, induce sedation by modulating the central nervous system’s neurotransmitters, such as GABA.
• Dizziness (neurological, short-term): THC lowers blood pressure and alters inner-ear balance, leading to light-headedness or vertigo.
• Increased heart rate (physical, short-term): THC stimulates the sympathetic nervous system, causing temporary tachycardia, which is risky for those with heart conditions. The risk of heart attack is several times higher in the hour after smoking marijuana than it would normally, according to Harvard Health in “Marijuana and heart health: What you need to know.”
• Impaired memory (neurological, short- and long-term): THC affects the hippocampus, reducing memory formation during intoxication, with potential chronic effects after prolonged use, according to a study by Niyuhire F et al. 2007, titled “Exposure to Marijuana Smoke Impairs Memory Retrieval in Mice.”
• Anxiety (neurological, short- or long-term): Cannabinoids dysregulate serotonin levels, sometimes causing heightened anxiety, especially in higher doses of THC. A retrospective cohort study by Keung MY et al. 2023, titled “Cannabis-Induced Anxiety Disorder in the Emergency Department,” analyzed 1,135 patients diagnosed with acute cannabis toxicity, finding that 17.3% of patients experienced cannabis-induced anxiety disorder. Symptoms included panic attacks, aggression, and hallucinations.
• Paranoia (neurological, short-term): THC, in high doses, leads to overactivation of certain brain regions, resulting in fear or delusional thinking. According to Acquiesce Rehab in “Does Cannabis Cause Paranoia?” suggests that this increase in cannabinoids overstimulates the amygdala, leading to feelings of fear, anxiety, and paranoia.
• Decreased coordination (neurological, short-term): Cannabinoids interfere with motor control by altering signals in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, according to a study by Crean RD, Crane NA, Mason BJ. et al. 2011, titled “An evidence-based review of acute and long-term effects of cannabis use on executive cognitive functions.”
• Mood changes (neurological, short- and long-term): THC affects neurotransmitters like dopamine, causing mood swings that are immediate or persist with chronic use. Cannabis users are four times more likely to have depressive symptoms at follow-up (14–16 years later). Suicidal ideation and anhedonia were specific symptoms that were affected, according to a study by Bovasso GB. et al. 2001, titled “Cannabis abuse as a risk factor for depressive symptoms.”
• Red eyes (physical, short-term): THC lowers intraocular pressure, dilating blood vessels in the eyes and leading to redness.
• Nausea (physical, short- and long-term): While cannabinoids treat nausea, chronic use paradoxically triggers cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome in some users.
• Vomiting (physical, short- and long-term): Overuse or high-potency cannabis leads to cyclical vomiting episodes, particularly in cases of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.
• Hallucinations (neurological, short-term): THC at high doses distorts perception, affecting visual, auditory, or tactile senses, according to a study by Karila L, Roux P, Rolland B., et al. 2014, titled “Acute and long-term effects of cannabis use: a review.”
• Dependence (neurological, long-term): Chronic use of cannabinoids leads to tolerance and withdrawal symptoms due to adaptations in the brain’s endocannabinoid system, according to a study by Patel J, Marwaha R., et al. 2024, titled “Cannabis Use Disorder.”
• Respiratory issues (physical, long-term): Smoking cannabis damages lung tissue and leads to chronic bronchitis symptoms over time. Research by Volkow ND et al. 2016, titled “Effects of Cannabis Use on Human Behavior, Including Cognition, Motivation, and Psychosis: A Review,” shown in shows that smoking marijuana causes chronic bronchitis and marijuana smoke has been shown to injure the cell linings of the large airways, which explains why smoking marijuana leads to symptoms such as chronic cough, phlegm production, wheeze, and acute bronchitis.

What are the Overdose Effects of Cannabinoids?

The overdose effects of cannabinoids include a range of physical and psychological symptoms, varying in severity depending on the individual and type of cannabinoid used. These effects range from mild discomfort to life-threatening conditions, especially with synthetic cannabinoids.

The overdose effects of cannabinoids are as follows:

• Extreme confusion: Extreme confusion is a psychological effect that leads to disorientation and difficulty processing information, according to a study by Kelly BF and Nappe TM. et al. 2023, titled “Cannabinoid Toxicity.” It is usually temporary, but in severe cases, it results in a sense of detachment from reality.
• Severe anxiety or paranoia: Paranoia or severe anxiety is a common psychological effect of cannabinoid overdose, especially with higher THC doses. Overdose leads to heightened fear, nervousness, and a sense of losing control, as studied by the MN dept. Of health in “Preventing Unintentional Poisonings from Cannabis Products.”
• Hallucinations: Users experience visual or auditory distortions when they consume large amounts of cannabinoids. Hallucinations are intense and disorienting, leading to panic or prolonged anxiety, according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse in 2016, titled “DrugFacts: Marijuana.”
• Increased heart rate (tachycardia): A physical effect of cannabinoid overdose, particularly with THC, leads to feelings of palpitations, dizziness, and anxiety. It is dangerous in those with pre-existing heart conditions.
• Nausea and vomiting (cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome): Nausea is a severe physical effect, leading to intense stomach discomfort and vomiting. This condition is also called Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS). During CHS, a patient experiences cyclical nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain after using a large amount of cannabis, according to a study by Cue L, Chu F, Cascella M., et al. 2024, titled “Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome.”
• Dizziness or lightheadedness: Dizziness is a common side effect of high doses of cannabinoids, causing physical disorientation. It leads to difficulty standing or walking, increasing the risk of falls. Peripheral vasodilatation causes postural hypotension, which leads to dizziness or syncope, as Medscape studied in “Cannabinoid Poisoning.”
• Impaired motor coordination: High doses of THC make physical movements, such as walking, balancing, or performing tasks that require fine motor skills, difficult.
• Panic attacks: A panic attack is a psychological effect that is common in those who are sensitive to THC. It includes sudden feelings of intense fear, chest tightness, and difficulty breathing linked to anxiety.
• Psychosis in predisposed individuals: In rare cases, particularly in those with a history of mental illness, cannabinoids trigger delusions or disorganized thinking. This effect is severe and long-lasting.
• Unresponsiveness or extreme sedation (rare, with synthetic cannabinoids): Overdose on synthetic cannabinoids, in particular, causes deep sedation, resulting in unresponsiveness or a state of extreme fatigue.
• Respiratory issues (primarily with synthetic cannabinoids): Synthetic cannabinoids cause severe breathing difficulties, including shallow or slow breathing, due to their potent effects on the central nervous system.
• Potential seizures (with synthetic cannabinoids): Seizures are a rare but serious side effect of synthetic cannabinoids, which lead to life-threatening complications, especially with overdose. Ten of 11 studies evaluating acute cannabis exposures reported a higher seizure incidence than would be expected based on the prevalence of epilepsy in the general and pediatric populations, as mentioned by Kaczor EE et al. 2022, in “The Potential Proconvulsant Effects of Cannabis: a Scoping Review.”

Can you Die from Cannabinoid Overdose?

Yes, it is possible to die from a cannabinoid overdose, but such cases are extremely rare and typically involve synthetic cannabinoids rather than natural cannabis. Synthetic cannabinoids, like K2 or Spice, are far more potent and unpredictable than THC, the primary psychoactive component of cannabis. These substances cause severe physical effects, such as respiratory failure, seizures, and extreme cardiovascular complications, which lead to fatal outcomes. While natural cannabis overdoses are not deadly, excessive consumption leads to dangerous secondary effects, such as accidents or health complications triggered by severe paranoia, psychosis, or impaired motor coordination.

How Do Cannabinoids Affect the Brain and Body?

Cannabinoids affect the brain and body by interacting with the endocannabinoid system, which regulates processes like mood, pain, appetite, and memory. They bind to cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2) located throughout the brain and body, altering the release of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine, according to a study by Burggren AC et al. 2019, titled “Cannabis effects on brain structure, function, and cognition: considerations for medical uses of cannabis and its derivatives.” This interaction leads to a range of effects, including euphoria, relaxation, or altered perception, depending on the type and concentration of cannabinoids.

THC, for instance, has psychoactive properties that stimulate dopamine release, contributing to feelings of pleasure and reward, while CBD is non-psychoactive and is thought to modulate serotonin, potentially reducing anxiety. These properties influence both the stimulant and sedative effects of cannabinoids, leading to their diverse impacts on physical and psychological health.

Can Cannabinoid Use Lead to Addiction?

Yes, cannabinoid use can lead to addiction, particularly with frequent and prolonged use of high-potency forms like THC-rich cannabis. Cannabinoid addiction, also known as cannabis use disorder (CUD), is characterized by compulsive use despite harmful consequences, withdrawal symptoms upon cessation, and a strong craving for the substance. Addiction develops as cannabinoids stimulate the brain’s reward system, particularly through increased dopamine release, which reinforces repeated use. Over time, this disrupts normal brain function, leading to tolerance, where higher doses are needed to achieve the same effect and dependence.

A study by the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA) in “Marijuana Facts for Teens” estimated that about 9% of cannabis users develop an addiction, a rate that increases to 17% for those who begin use in adolescence and up to 25-50% for daily users. Genetic, environmental, and psychological factors also contribute to the likelihood of cannabis addiction, highlighting the complex interplay of biology and behavior in the development of cannabinoid dependency.

What is Cannabinoid Dependence?

Cannabinoid dependence is a condition where the body adapts to regular cannabinoid use, leading to withdrawal symptoms when usage is reduced or stopped. While it is closely related to addiction, dependence specifically refers to the physical and psychological reliance on cannabinoids due to repeated exposure, whereas addiction encompasses compulsive drug-seeking behavior and continued use despite adverse consequences.

Dependence develops as cannabinoids interact with the brain’s endocannabinoid system, altering the regulation of neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. Over time, the brain reduces its natural production of these chemicals, making it reliant on external cannabinoids to maintain balance. Symptoms of dependence include irritability, insomnia, loss of appetite, and mood swings when the substance is not available, according to a study by Patel J, Marwaha R., et al. 2024, titled “Cannabis Use Disorder.”

According to research published in Yale Medicine, approximately About 10% of people who begin smoking cannabis will become addicted, and 30% of cannabis users exhibit some degree of cannabinoid dependence. This condition is particularly common in daily or heavy users, and its severity varies based on the potency of the cannabinoids consumed. Understanding dependence is important in developing effective interventions and support for individuals seeking to reduce or cease cannabinoid use.

What are the Withdrawal Symptoms of Cannabinoids?

The withdrawal symptoms of cannabinoids are a set of physical and psychological effects that occur when a person who has been using cannabinoids regularly stops or significantly reduces their use. Withdrawal refers to the body’s response to the absence of a cannabinoid it has become dependent on, resulting in discomfort as the body attempts to readjust to functioning without it.

Common withdrawal symptoms of cannabinoids include irritability, anxiety, insomnia, reduced appetite, mood swings, headaches, nausea, and restlessness. These symptoms arise because prolonged cannabinoid use disrupts the natural balance of the endocannabinoid system, which regulates mood, sleep, and appetite. When cannabinoids are removed, the body temporarily struggles to regain equilibrium, leading to withdrawal. According to a study in JAMA Psychiatry, titled “Prevalence of Cannabis Withdrawal Symptoms Among People With Regular or Dependent Use of Cannabinoids, A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis,” approximately 47% of regular cannabis users report withdrawal symptoms, which peak within the first 7 days and gradually subside over two to three weeks.

Is Cannabinoid Addiction Treatable?

Yes, cannabinoid addiction is treatable. Like other substance use disorders, it requires a combination of behavioral therapies, medical support, and sometimes medication-assisted treatment to address the psychological and physical challenges associated with addiction. According to Addiction Recovery Statistics from the Centers for Drug Control and Prevention, 75% of people recover from addiction.

Treatments such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) help individuals recognize triggers, develop coping strategies, and modify negative thought patterns associated with cannabinoid use. Support groups and counseling provide additional emotional reinforcement and guidance during recovery. Medical management focuses on alleviating withdrawal symptoms like anxiety, irritability, or insomnia, which hinder recovery progress.

Behaviorally based interventions have proven effective for treating cannabis use disorders, though success rates remain modest. For adults, treatments like motivational enhancement therapy (MET) and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combined with contingency management (CM) achieve initial 2-week abstinence in about 50% of participants, but only 19–29% maintain abstinence after one year, as studied by Budney AJ. et al. 2006, titled “Are specific dependence criteria necessary for different substances: How can research on cannabis inform this issue?”

For motivational enhancement therapy (MET) alone, one-year abstinence rates range from 9–28%, according to a study by Budney AJ et al. 2007, titled “Marijuana dependence and its treatment.” While some adults report reduced use or fewer related problems, others show minimal progress. For adolescents, the Cannabis Youth Treatment study reported abstinence rates of 11–15% at the end of treatment and 17–34% after 12 months.

While recovery is a gradual process, early intervention and consistent treatment significantly improve outcomes for individuals struggling with cannabinoid addiction.

Are Cannabinoids Safe?

Yes, cannabinoids are considered safe when used appropriately under medical guidance, but their safety largely depends on dosage, method of consumption, and individual response. Misuse or overuse leads to adverse effects like dependence, anxiety, or physical symptoms such as nausea. Therapeutic benefits are studied by Pagano C et al. 2022, in “Cannabinoids: Therapeutic Use in Clinical Practice,” but long-term safety remains a subject of ongoing studies.

What is the Difference Between Cannabinoids and Cannabis?

The main difference between cannabinoids and cannabis is that cannabinoids are the chemical compounds found within cannabis, responsible for its effects, while cannabis refers to the plant itself. Cannabinoids like THC and CBD interact with the body’s endocannabinoid system, while the cannabis plant contains a variety of cannabinoids, terpenes, and other compounds. Additionally, cannabinoids are derived synthetically or from different sources, unlike cannabis, which is entirely plant-based.

Which Types of Cannabinoids are the Strongest?

The strongest type of cannabinoid is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), as it has the most potent psychoactive effects compared to other cannabinoids. Ketcherside A. et al. 2017, in a study titled “Cannabinoid Receptor 1 Gene by Cannabis Use Interaction on CB1 Receptor Density,” show that THC’s binding affinity to CB1 receptors in the brain is significantly stronger, producing pronounced effects on mood, perception, and physical sensations. Synthetic cannabinoids, such as those found in K2 or Spice, are even more potent but carry heightened risks of severe side effects, as shown in clinical reviews.

How are Cannabinoids Made?

Cannabinoids are made by the cannabis plant through a natural biosynthesis process. They start with precursors like olivetolic acid and geranyl pyrophosphate, which combine to form cannabigerol acid (CBGA). This compound is the precursor to other cannabinoids, such as THC and CBD, depending on enzymatic reactions triggered during the plant’s growth. Synthetic cannabinoids, by contrast, are produced in laboratories using chemical synthesis to mimic or modify natural cannabinoid structures.

What is the Difference Between THC and CBD?

The main difference between THC and CBD is that THC is psychoactive, producing a “high,” while CBD is non-psychoactive and is primarily associated with therapeutic benefits. THC binds strongly to CB1 receptors in the brain, altering perception and mood, whereas CBD interacts indirectly, modulating receptor activity without causing intoxication. Additionally, THC is commonly used for pain and appetite stimulation, while CBD is favored for reducing inflammation, anxiety, and seizures. Both compounds have distinct legal statuses and applications in medicine.

How Long Do Cannabinoids Stay in Your System?

Cannabinoids stay in your system for around 1 to 90 days, depending on several factors, such as the frequency of use, the method of consumption, and individual metabolism, according to a study by Hadland SE, Levy S. et al. 2016, titled “Objective Testing: Urine and Other Drug Tests.” For occasional users, cannabinoids like THC clear from the system within a few days, while for regular or heavy users, they stay in the body for weeks due to the storage of metabolites in fat cells.

Cannabinoids stay up to 90 days in hair, anywhere between 1 day to a month or longer in urine. It is detected in saliva for up to 24 hours and up to 12 hours in blood. The half-life of THC in the body ranges from 1 to 10 days, but it takes much longer to be completely eliminated from the body, as reported in Sharma P, Murthy P, and Bharath MM. et al. 2012, titled “Chemistry, metabolism, and toxicology of cannabis: clinical implications.”

How are Cannabinoids Eliminated from the Body?

Cannabinoids are eliminated from the body by metabolism and excretion. The liver metabolizes cannabinoids, primarily transforming THC into its inactive metabolites, which are then excreted through urine and feces. More than 65% of cannabis is excreted in the feces, and approximately 20% is excreted in urine, as studied by Huestis MA, Henningfield JE, and Cone EJ. et al. 1992, in “Blood cannabinoids. I. Absorption of THC and formation of 11-OH-THC and THCCOOH during and after smoking marijuana.”

Most cannabis (80% to 90%) is excreted within 5 days as hydroxylated and carboxylated metabolites, according to a study by Lemberger L, Axelrod J, Kopin IJ, et al. 1971, titled “Metabolism and disposition of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man.” The process takes days or weeks, with THC being stored in fat cells and slowly released over time. This slow release is why cannabinoids stay detectable in the body long after the effects have worn off.

How are Cannabinoids Classified?

Cannabinoids are classified by their origin and chemical structure. There are three main categories: Phytocannabinoids, Endocannabinoids, and Synthetic cannabinoids. Phytocannabinoids are naturally occurring cannabinoids in cannabis, such as THC and CBD, while Endocannabinoids are cannabinoids produced by the human body, like anandamide. Synthetic cannabinoids, on the other hand, are chemically engineered cannabinoids, such as those found in products like K2 or Spice. Each category is distinguished by its source and the way it interacts with the body’s endocannabinoid system.

Are Cannabinoids Legal?

Yes, cannabinoids are legal in some places but not in others. The legality of cannabinoids, especially THC, varies by country, state, and region. In some locations, cannabinoids like CBD are legal, especially if they contain less than 0.3% THC, while THC remains illegal in many areas. In the U.S., for instance, the 2018 Farm Bill legalized hemp-derived CBD, but THC and marijuana-based cannabinoids are regulated at the state level, and recreational cannabis is still illegal in several states.

What are Synthetic Cannabinoids?

Synthetic cannabinoids are man-made chemicals that mimic the effects of natural cannabinoids found in cannabis. They are designed to bind to cannabinoid receptors in the brain and produce similar effects as THC. These synthetic substances are sprayed onto plant material and marketed as legal alternatives to cannabis. However, they are far more potent and dangerous than natural cannabinoids, leading to unpredictable and severe side effects, such as agitation, hallucinations, and even death. Unlike natural cannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids have chemical structures that are completely synthetic and do not occur in nature.

Are Cannabinoids Only Found in Cannabis?

No, cannabinoids are not only found in cannabis. While cannabis is the most well-known source, cannabinoids are also present in other plants, like Echinacea, and are naturally produced by the human body (endocannabinoids). The human endocannabinoid system plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis, and endocannabinoids like anandamide and 2-AG help regulate various physiological processes.

What are Street names for Cannabinoids?

The common street names for cannabinoids include Black Mamba, Fake Weed, and Genie. They are used to refer to both natural cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids, particularly those found in products like synthetic marijuana. These street names are used to disguise the true nature of the drug or make it sound more innocuous. Some of the most common terms are used to refer to synthetic cannabinoids, which are highly potent and dangerous.

The common street names for cannabinoids are as follows:

• Spice
• K2
• Synthetic Weed
• Black Mamba
• Fake Weed
• Genie
• Moon Rocks
• Kush

Should You Take Cannabinoids While You Are Pregnant?

No, you should not take cannabinoids while you are pregnant because they negatively affect both the mother and the developing fetus. Cannabinoids, particularly THC, cross the placenta and interfere with fetal brain development, potentially leading to long-term cognitive and behavioral issues. It has also been demonstrated that exposure to THC in utero affects fetal brain development, increasing the risk for neurocognitive and neuropsychiatric disorders, suggesting that maternal use has interfered with the proper maturation of the brain, according to a study by Wu C-S, Jew CP, Lu H-C. et al. 2011, titled “Lasting impacts of prenatal cannabis exposure and the role of endogenous cannabinoids in the developing brain.”

Additionally, the use of cannabinoids during pregnancy has been linked to an increased risk of low birth weight, premature birth, and developmental delays. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists advises against using any form of cannabis during pregnancy due to these risks, even to treat morning sickness. There is also no safe way to use marijuana.

What is the Entourage Effect?

The entourage effect is a phenomenon where various compounds found in cannabis, such as cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids, work together synergistically to enhance the therapeutic effects of the plant. Instead of isolated compounds acting independently, the presence of other elements in cannabis increases their overall efficacy or modifies the effects, leading to a more balanced and beneficial experience. This effect highlights the potential for the whole plant to be more effective than any individual compound, particularly in medicinal use.

According to the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), some drugs containing single cannabinoids, such as Epidiolex, an oral CBD solution, offer benefits based on limited research. Epidiolex is FDA-approved for treating seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, Dravet syndrome, and tuberous sclerosis complex, making it the only cannabis-derived drug currently approved by the FDA.

How do Cannabinoids Affect Appetite?

Cannabinoids affect appetite by interacting with the body’s endocannabinoid system, which regulates various physiological processes, including hunger. Specifically, THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) is known to stimulate appetite by binding to CB1 receptors in the brain, triggering the release of hunger-promoting signals. This is why cannabis is associated with increased cravings and overeating, particularly in certain conditions like chemotherapy-related weight loss. A study by Examine titled “The science behind munchies: cannabis and your appetite” suggests that cannabinoids modulate the brain’s reward and hunger centers, influencing food intake and taste preferences.

Can cannabinoids be used for pets?

Yes, cannabinoids can be used for pets, but only under specific circumstances and with veterinary guidance. Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive compound found in cannabis, is used to help pets with conditions such as anxiety, arthritis, and chronic pain. CBD has been shown by a study by Gugliandolo E et al. 2021, titled “Effect of Cannabidiol (CBD) on Canine Inflammatory Response: An Ex Vivo Study on LPS Stimulated Whole Blood” to have calming and anti-inflammatory properties, which benefit pets, especially dogs, suffering from these ailments. However, THC, the psychoactive component, should never be used for pets as it is toxic. Always consult a veterinarian before administering cannabinoids to pets.

What is the Endocannabinoid System?

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a complex cell-signaling system found in the body that plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis, or balance, in various physiological processes such as mood, appetite, sleep, pain sensation, and immune function, as explained by the Havard Health in a study titled “The endocannabinoid system: Essential and mysterious.” It consists of endocannabinoids, receptors (CB1 and CB2), and enzymes that work together to regulate these functions. The ECS helps the body adapt to environmental changes, and it is involved in many processes that help maintain overall health.

What are CB1 and CB2 receptors?

CB1 and CB2 receptors are the two main types of cannabinoid receptors in the body, both of which are part of the endocannabinoid system. CB1 receptors are primarily located in the brain and central nervous system and are involved in regulating mood, appetite, pain, and memory. CB2 receptors are mainly found in peripheral tissues, particularly the immune system, and are involved in reducing inflammation and modulating immune responses. Both receptors play significant roles in how cannabinoids affect the body, including their therapeutic effects.

Are CB1 and CB2 receptors involved in addiction?

Yes, CB1 and CB2 receptors are involved in addiction. The CB1 receptor, in particular, plays a key role in the brain’s reward and pleasure centers, which are involved in the development of addiction. When activated by cannabinoids such as THC, CB1 receptors increase dopamine release, reinforcing the behavior associated with drug use. While CB2 receptors are less directly involved, they influence the overall experience and impact of addiction by modulating inflammation and immune responses. A study by Roeckel LA et al. 2018, titled “CB1 Agonism Alters Addiction-Related Behaviors in Mice Lacking Mu or Delta Opioid Receptors,” has shown that altering CB1 receptor activity impacts addiction-related behaviors.

How do CB1 and CB2 respond to different types of cannabinoids?

CB1 and CB2 receptors respond to different types of cannabinoids by varying their affinity and effects. CB1 receptors primarily interact with THC, the psychoactive compound in cannabis, which induces effects like euphoria, altered perception, and increased appetite. CB2 receptors, on the other hand, respond more to CBD, the non-psychoactive cannabinoid, which has anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. The difference in how these receptors respond explains why THC has mood-altering effects, while CBD tends to be more calming and therapeutic without causing intoxication.

What Is the History of Cannabinoids?

The history of cannabinoids dates back thousands of years, with cannabis being one of the earliest known plants used for medicinal, recreational, and spiritual purposes. Ancient civilizations, including the Chinese, Egyptians, and Indians, used cannabis for its therapeutic properties, with records suggesting its use as far back as 2737 BCE in ancient China.

Cannabis was initially recognized for its ability to treat a wide range of ailments, such as pain, inflammation, and digestive issues. In the 19th century, Western medicine began incorporating cannabis extracts, but as the 20th century progressed, concerns over the psychoactive effects of the plant led to a shift in its legal status. The 1930s saw the criminalization of cannabis in many countries, including the United States, where the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 effectively prohibited its use.

Cannabis remained illegal for much of the 20th century, though there was growing interest in its medicinal properties, particularly in relation to its cannabinoids, THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol). By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, there was a growing movement to re-evaluate the medical benefits of cannabinoids, leading to the legalization of medical cannabis in various U.S. states beginning in the 1990s.

In recent years, there has been increasing support for the legalization of cannabis, both for medical and recreational use, with 23 states and Washington D.C. legalizing medical cannabis as of 2024 and several states allowing recreational cannabis use. The legal status of cannabis and cannabinoids remains a subject of ongoing debate in the U.S. and globally, with many advocates calling for federal legalization to address issues such as the criminal justice system’s treatment of cannabis users and the potential medical benefits of cannabinoids.